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Poland
Background:
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Poland is an ancient nation that
was conceived near the middle of the 10th century. Its golden age
occurred in the 16th century. During the following century, the
strengthening of the gentry and internal disorders weakened the nation.
In a series of agreements between 1772 and 1795, Russia, Prussia, and
Austria partitioned Poland amongst themselves. Poland regained its
independence in 1918 only to be overrun by Germany and the Soviet Union
in World War II. It became a Soviet satellite state following the war,
but its government was comparatively tolerant and progressive. Labor
turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the independent trade union
"Solidarity" that over time became a political force and by 1990 had
swept parliamentary elections and the presidency. A "shock therapy"
program during the early 1990s enabled the country to transform its
economy into one of the most robust in Central Europe, but Poland still
faces the lingering challenges of high unemployment, underdeveloped and
dilapidated infrastructure, and a poor rural underclass. Solidarity
suffered a major defeat in the 2001 parliamentary elections when it
failed to elect a single deputy to the lower house of Parliament, and
the new leaders of the Solidarity Trade Union subsequently pledged to
reduce the Trade Union's political role. Poland joined NATO in 1999 and
the European Union in 2004. With its transformation to a democratic,
market-oriented country largely completed, Poland is an increasingly
active member of Euro-Atlantic organizations.
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Location:
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Central Europe, east of Germany
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Geographic coordinates:
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52 00 N, 20 00 E
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Map references:
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Europe
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Area:
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total: 312,685
sq km
country comparison to the world: 69
land:
304,255 sq km
water:
8,430 sq km
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Area - comparative:
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slightly smaller than New
Mexico
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Land boundaries:
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total: 3,047
km
border countries:
Belarus 605 km, Czech Republic 615 km, Germany 456
km, Lithuania 91 km, Russia (Kaliningrad Oblast) 432 km, Slovakia 420
km, Ukraine 428 km
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Coastline:
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440 km
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Maritime claims:
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territorial sea: 12
nm
exclusive economic zone:
defined by international treaties
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Climate:
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Current Weather
temperate with cold,
cloudy, moderately severe winters with frequent precipitation; mild
summers with frequent showers and thundershowers
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Terrain:
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mostly flat plain;
mountains along southern border
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Elevation extremes:
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lowest point: near
Raczki Elblaskie -2 m
highest point:
Rysy 2,499 m
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Natural resources:
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coal, sulfur, copper,
natural gas, silver, lead, salt, amber, arable land
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Land use:
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arable land: 40.25%
permanent crops:
1%
other:
58.75% (2005)
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Irrigated land:
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1,000 sq km (2003)
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Total
renewable water resources:
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63.1 cu km (2005)
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Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):
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total: 11.73
cu km/yr (13%/79%/8%)
per capita:
304 cu m/yr (2002)
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Natural hazards:
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flooding
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Environment - current issues:
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situation has improved
since 1989 due to decline in heavy industry and increased environmental
concern by post-Communist governments; air pollution nonetheless remains
serious because of sulfur dioxide emissions from coal-fired power
plants, and the resulting acid rain has caused forest damage; water
pollution from industrial and municipal sources is also a problem, as is
disposal of hazardous wastes; pollution levels should continue to
decrease as industrial establishments bring their facilities up to EU
code, but at substantial cost to business and the government
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Environment - international agreements:
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party to: Air
Pollution, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic-Marine Living
Resources, Antarctic Seals, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered
Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Kyoto Protocol,
Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution,
Wetlands
signed, but not ratified:
Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air
Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulfur 94
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Geography - note:
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historically, an area of
conflict because of flat terrain and the lack of natural barriers on the
North European Plain
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Population:
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38,463,689 (July 2010 est.)
country comparison to the world: 34
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Age structure:
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0-14 years: 14.8%
(male 2,931,732/female 2,769,021)
15-64 years:
71.7% (male 13,725,939/female 13,863,103)
65 years and over:
13.5% (male 1,971,763/female 3,202,131) (2010
est.)
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Median age:
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total: 38.2
years
male:
36.5 years
female:
40 years (2010 est.)
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Population growth rate:
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-0.053% (2010 est.)
04
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Birth rate:
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10.04 births/1,000
population (2010 est.)
93
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Death rate:
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10.1 deaths/1,000
population (July 2010 est.)
country comparison to the world: 59
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Net migration rate:
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-0.47 migrant(s)/1,000
population (2010 est.)
07
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Urbanization:
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urban population: 61%
of total population (2008)
rate of urbanization:
-0.3% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.)
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Sex ratio:
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at birth: 1.061
male(s)/female
under 15 years:
1.06 male(s)/female
15-64 years:
0.99 male(s)/female
65 years and over:
0.62 male(s)/female
total population:
0.94 male(s)/female (2010 est.)
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Infant mortality rate:
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total: 6.66
deaths/1,000 live births
4
male:
7.38 deaths/1,000 live births
female:
5.9 deaths/1,000 live births (2010 est.)
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Life expectancy at birth:
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total population: 75.85
years
male:
71.88 years
female:
80.06 years (2010 est.)
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Total fertility rate:
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1.29 children born/woman
(2010 est.)
09
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HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:
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0.1%; note - no country
specific models provided (2007 est.)
28
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HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:
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20,000 (2007 est.)
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HIV/AIDS - deaths:
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fewer than 200 (2007
est.)
19
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Major
infectious diseases:
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degree of risk: intermediate
food or waterborne diseases:
bacterial diarrhea
vectorborne disease:
tickborne encephalitis
note:
highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza has been
identified in this country; it poses a negligible risk with extremely
rare cases possible among US citizens who have close contact with birds
(2009)
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Nationality:
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noun: Pole(s)
adjective:
Polish
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Ethnic groups:
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Polish 96.7%, German
0.4%, Belarusian 0.1%, Ukrainian 0.1%, other and unspecified 2.7% (2002
census)
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Religions:
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Roman Catholic 89.8%
(about 75% practicing), Eastern Orthodox 1.3%, Protestant 0.3%, other
0.3%, unspecified 8.3% (2002)
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Languages:
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Polish 97.8%, other and
unspecified 2.2% (2002 census)
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Literacy:
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definition: age
15 and over can read and write
total population:
99.8%
male:
99.8%
female:
99.7% (2003 est.)
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School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education):
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total: 15
years
male:
15 years
female:
16 years (2006)
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Education expenditures:
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5.5% of GDP (2005)
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Country name:
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conventional long form: Republic of Poland
conventional short form:
Poland
local long form:
Rzeczpospolita Polska
local short form:
Polska
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Government type:
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republic
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Capital:
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name: Warsaw
geographic coordinates:
52 15 N, 21 00 E
time difference:
UTC+1 (6 hours ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
daylight saving time:
+1hr, begins last Sunday in March; ends last
Sunday in October
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Administrative divisions:
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16 provinces
(wojewodztwa, singular - wojewodztwo); Dolnoslaskie (Lower Silesia),
Kujawsko-Pomorskie (Kuyavia-Pomerania), Lodzkie, Lubelskie (Lublin),
Lubuskie (Lubusz), Malopolskie (Lesser Poland), Mazowieckie (Masovia),
Opolskie, Podkarpackie (Subcarpathia), Podlaskie, Pomorskie (Pomerania),
Slaskie (Silesia), Swietokrzyskie, Warminsko-Mazurskie
(Warmia-Masuria), Wielkopolskie (Greater Poland), Zachodniopomorskie
(West Pomerania)
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Independence:
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11 November 1918
(republic proclaimed)
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National holiday:
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Constitution Day, 3 May
(1791)
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Constitution:
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adopted by the National
Assembly 2 April 1997; passed by national referendum 25 May 1997;
effective 17 October 1997
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Legal system:
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based on a mixture of
Continental (Napoleonic) civil law and holdover Communist legal theory;
changes being gradually introduced as part of broader democratization
process; limited judicial review of legislative acts, but rulings of the
Constitutional Tribunal are final; court decisions can be appealed to
the European Court of Justice in Strasbourg; accepts compulsory ICJ
jurisdiction with reservations
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Suffrage:
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18 years of age;
universal
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Executive branch:
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chief of state: Acting
President Bronislaw KOMOROWSKI (since 10 April 2010); note - KOMOROWSKI
became acting president following the death of Lech KACZYNSKI in an
airplane crash
head of government:
Prime Minister Donald TUSK (since 16 November
2007); Deputy Prime Minister Waldemar PAWLAK (since 16 November 2007)
cabinet:
Council of Ministers responsible to the prime
minister and the Sejm; the prime minister proposes, the president
appoints, and the Sejm approves the Council of Ministers
elections:
president elected by popular vote for a five-year
term (eligible for a second term); election last held on 9 and 23
October 2005 (next to be held 20 June and 4 July 2010); prime minister
and deputy prime ministers appointed by the president and confirmed by
the Sejm
election results:
Lech KACZYNSKI elected president; percent of
popular vote - Lech KACZYNSKI 54%, Donald Tusk 46%
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Legislative branch:
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bicameral legislature
consists of an upper house, the Senate or Senat (100 seats; members
elected by a majority vote on a provincial basis to serve four-year
terms), and a lower house, the Sejm (460 seats; members elected under a
complex system of proportional representation to serve four-year terms);
the designation of National Assembly or Zgromadzenie Narodowe is only
used on those rare occasions when the two houses meet jointly
elections:
Senate - last held on 21 October 2007 (next to be
held by October 2011); Sejm - last held on 21 October 2007 (next to be
held by October 2011)
election results:
Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by
party - PO 60, PiS 39, independents 1; Sejm - percent of vote by party -
PO 41.5%, PiS 32.1%, LiD 13.2%, PSL 8.9%, other 4.3%; seats by party -
PO 209, PiS 166, LiD 53, PSL 31, German minorities 1; note - seats by
parliamentary grouping as of December 2009 - PO 206, PiS 154, Left 43,
PSL 31, SDPL 4, Polska Plus 9, DKP SD 3, German minorities 1,
nonaffiliated 9
note:
one seat is assigned to ethnic minority parties in
the Sejm only
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Judicial branch:
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Supreme Court (judges are
appointed by the president on the recommendation of the National
Council of the Judiciary for an indefinite period); Constitutional
Tribunal (judges are chosen by the Sejm for nine-year terms)
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Political parties and leaders:
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Civic Platform or PO
[chairman Donald TUSK; parliamentary caucus leader Grzegorz SCHETYNA];
Democratic Caucus of the Democratic Party (SD) or DKP SD [parliamentary
caucus leader Bogdan LIS]; Democratic Left Alliance or SLD [chairman
Grzegorz NAPIERALSKI]; Democratic Party or PD [chairwoman Brygida
KUZNIAK]; Democratic Party or SD [chairman Pawel PISKORSKI]; German
Minority of Lower Silesia or MNSO [representative Henryk KROLL]; Law and
Justice or PiS [chairman Jaroslaw KACZYNSKI; parliamentary caucus
leader Marek KUCHCINSKI]; League of Polish Families or LPR [chairman
Witold BALAZAK]; Left (Democratic Left Alliance and independents)
[parliamentary caucus leader Grzegorz NAPIERALSKI]; Polish People's
Party or PSL [chairman Waldemar PAWLAK; parliamentary caucus leader
Stanislaw ZELICHOWSKI]; Polska Plus (chairman Jerzy POLACZEK;
parliamentary caucus leader Ludwik DORN]
; Samoobrona or SO [chairman Andrzej LEPPER]; Social Democratic Party of
Poland or SDPL [chairman Wojciech FILEMONOWICZ, parliamentary caucus
leader Marek BOROWSKI]; Union of Labor or UP [chairman Waldemar
WITKOWSKI]
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Political pressure groups and leaders:
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All Poland Trade Union
Alliance or OPZZ (trade union) [Jan GUZ]; Roman Catholic Church
[Cardinal Stanislaw DZIWISZ, Archbishop Jozef MICHALIK]; Solidarity
Trade Union [Janusz SNIADEK]
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International organization participation:
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Arctic Council
(observer), Australia Group, BIS, BSEC (observer), CBSS, CD, CE, CEI,
CERN, EAPC, EBRD, EIB, ESA (cooperating state), EU, FAO, IAEA, IBRD,
ICAO, ICC, ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO,
Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, MINURCAT, MINURSO,
MONUC, NATO, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OIF (observer), OPCW, OSCE, PCA,
Schengen Convention, SECI (observer), UN, UNCTAD, UNDOF, UNESCO, UNHCR,
UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNMIL, UNMIS, UNOCI, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO,
WMO, WTO, ZC
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Diplomatic representation in the US:
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chief of mission: Ambassador
Robert KUPIECKI
chancery:
2640 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20009
telephone:
[1] (202) 234-3800 through 3802
FAX:
[1] (202) 328-6271
consulate(s) general:
Chicago, Los Angeles, New York
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Diplomatic representation from the US:
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chief of mission: Ambassador
Lee FEINSTEIN
embassy:
Aleje Ujazdowskie 29/31 00-540 Warsaw
mailing address:
American Embassy Warsaw, US Department of State,
Washington, DC 20521-5010 (pouch)
telephone:
[48] (22) 504-2000
FAX:
[48] (22) 504-2688
consulate(s) general:
Krakow
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Flag description:
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two equal horizontal
bands of white (top) and red; colors derive from the Polish emblem - a
white eagle on a red field
note:
similar to the flags of Indonesia and Monaco which
are red (top) and white
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Economy - overview:
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Poland has pursued a policy of
economic liberalization since 1990 and today stands out as a success
story among transition economies. Before 2009, GDP had grown about 5%
annually, based on rising private consumption, a jump in corporate
investment, and EU funds inflows. GDP per capita is still much below the
EU average, but is similar to that of the three Baltic states. Since
2004, EU membership and access to EU structural funds have provided a
major boost to the economy. Unemployment fell rapidly to 6.4% in October
2008, climbed back to 8.9% by January 2010, but remains below the EU
average. In 2008 inflation reached 4.2%, more than the upper limit of
the National Bank of Poland's target range, but fell to 3.5% in January
2010 due to global economic slowdown. Poland's economic performance
could improve over the longer term if the country addresses some of the
remaining deficiencies in its road and rail infrastructure and its
business environment. An inefficient commercial court system, a rigid
labor code, bureaucratic red tape, burdensome tax system, and persistent
low-level corruption keep the private sector from performing up to its
full potential. Rising demands to fund health care, education, and the
state pension system present a challenge to the Polish Government's
effort to hold the consolidated public sector budget deficit under 3.0%
of GDP, a target which was achieved in 2007-09. The PO/PSL coalition
government, which came to power in November 2007, plans to reduce the
budget deficit in 2010 and has also announced its intention to enact
business-friendly reforms, increase workforce participation, reduce
public sector spending growth, lower taxes, and accelerate
privatization. The government, however, has moved slowly on major
reforms. The legislature passed a law significantly limiting early
retirement benefits. A health-care bill also passed through the
legislature, but the legislature failed to overturn a presidential veto.
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GDP (purchasing power parity):
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$690.1 billion (2009
est.)
1
$678.6
billion (2008 est.)
$646.3
billion (2007 est.)
note:
data are in 2009 US dollars
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GDP (official exchange rate):
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$427.9 billion (2009
est.)
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GDP - real growth rate:
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1.7% (2009 est.)
5%
(2008 est.)
6.8%
(2007 est.)
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GDP - per capita (PPP):
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$17,900 (2009 est.)
country comparison to the world: 68
$17,600
(2008 est.)
$16,800
(2007 est.)
note:
data are in 2009 US dollars
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GDP - composition by sector:
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agriculture: 4.6%
industry:
28.1%
services:
67.3% (2009 est.)
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Labor force:
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17.28 million (2009 est.)
country comparison to the world: 36
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Labor force -
by occupation:
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agriculture: 17.4%
industry:
29.2%
services:
53.4% (2005)
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Unemployment rate:
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8.9% (January 2010 est.)
04
6.5%
(December 2008 est.)
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Population
below poverty line:
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17% (2003 est.)
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Household income or consumption by percentage share:
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lowest 10%: 3%
highest 10%:
27.2% (2005)
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Distribution of family income - Gini index:
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34.9 (2005)
31.6
(1998)
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Investment (gross fixed):
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20.1% of GDP (2009 est.)
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Budget:
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revenues: $87.9
billion
expenditures:
$95.52 billion (2009 est.)
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Public debt:
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46.5% of GDP (2009 est.)
country comparison to the world: 51
44.5%
of GDP (2008 est.)
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Inflation rate (consumer prices):
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3.5% (2009 est.)
15
4.2%
(2008 est.)
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Central bank
discount rate:
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5% (31 December 2008)
5%
(31 December 2007)
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Commercial bank prime lending rate:
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NA% (31 December 2008)
41
5.72%
(31 December 2007)
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Stock of money:
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$118.2 billion (31
December 2008)
5
$137.4
billion (31 December 2007)
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Stock of quasi money:
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$109 billion (31 December
2008)
6
$93.98
billion (31 December 2007)
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Stock of
domestic credit:
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$258.3 billion (31
December 2008)
8
$223.2
billion (31 December 2007)
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Market value of publicly traded shares:
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$147.2 billion (31
December 2009)
country comparison to the world: 39
$90.23
billion (31 December 2008)
$207.3
billion (31 December 2007)
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Agriculture - products:
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potatoes, fruits,
vegetables, wheat; poultry, eggs, pork, dairy
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Industries:
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machine building, iron
and steel, coal mining, chemicals, shipbuilding, food processing, glass,
beverages, textiles
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Industrial production growth rate:
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-0.2% (2009 est.)
country comparison to the world: 70
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Electricity -
production:
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149.1 billion kWh (2007
est.)
3
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Electricity -
consumption:
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129.3 billion kWh (2007
est.)
5
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Electricity - exports:
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9.703 billion kWh (2008)
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Electricity - imports:
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8.48 billion kWh (2008
est.)
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Oil - production:
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35,560 bbl/day (2008
est.)
country comparison to the world: 68
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Oil - consumption:
|
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544,800 bbl/day (2008
est.)
country comparison to the world: 31
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Oil - exports:
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67,340 bbl/day (2008
est.)
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Oil - imports:
|
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595,400 bbl/day (2008
est.)
1
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Oil - proved reserves:
|
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96.38 million bbl (1
January 2009 est.)
country comparison to the world: 69
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Natural gas -
production:
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5.719 billion cu m (2008
est.)
country comparison to the world: 48
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Natural gas -
consumption:
|
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16.55 billion cu m (2008
est.)
country comparison to the world: 40
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Natural gas - exports:
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39 million cu m (2008
est.)
country comparison to the world: 42
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Natural gas - imports:
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11.2 billion cu m (2008
est.)
0
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Natural
gas - proved reserves:
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164.8 billion cu m (1
January 2009 est.)
country comparison to the world: 47
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Current account balance:
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-$7.172 billion (2009
est.)
5
-$26.85
billion (2008 est.)
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Exports:
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$139.5 billion (2009
est.)
7
$178.7
billion (2008 est.)
|
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Exports - commodities:
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machinery and transport
equipment 37.8%, intermediate manufactured goods 23.7%, miscellaneous
manufactured goods 17.1%, food and live animals 7.6%
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Exports - partners:
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Germany 24.4%, France 6%,
Italy 5.9%, UK 5.6%, Czech Republic 5.5%, Russia 5.2% (2008)
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Imports:
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$144.3 billion (2009
est.)
3
$204.7
billion (2008 est.)
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Imports - commodities:
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machinery and transport
equipment 38%, intermediate manufactured goods 21%, chemicals 15%,
minerals, fuels, lubricants, and related materials 9%
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Imports - partners:
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Germany 28%, Russia 9.7%,
Italy 6.1%, Netherlands 5.3%, France 4.7%, China 4.4% (2008)
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Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:
|
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$79.58 billion (31
December 2009 est.)
2
$62.17
billion (31 December 2008 est.)
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Debt - external:
|
|
$201.2 billion (31
December 2009 est.)
7
$243.5
billion (31 December 2008)
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Stock of direct foreign investment - at home:
|
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$182.8 billion (31
December 2009 est.)
2
$163.4
billion (31 December 2008 est.)
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Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad:
|
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$26.21 billion (31
December 2009 est.)
country comparison to the world: 36
$22.56
billion (31 December 2008 est.)
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Exchange rates:
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zlotych (PLN) per US
dollar - 3.1 (2009), 2.3 (2008), 2.81 (2007), 3.1032 (2006), 3.2355
(2005)
note:
zlotych is the plural form of zloty
|
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Telephones - main lines in use:
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10.336 million (2008)
1
|
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Telephones -
mobile cellular:
|
|
44.004 million (2008)
6
|
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Telephone system:
|
|
general assessment: modernization
of the telecommunications network has accelerated with market-based
competition; fixed-line service, dominated by the former state-owned
company, is dwarfed by the growth in mobile-cellular services
domestic:
mobile-cellular service available since 1993 and
provided by three nation-wide networks with a fourth provider beginning
operations in late 2006; coverage is generally good with some gaps in
the east; fixed-line service is growing slowly and still lags in rural
areas
international:
country code - 48; international direct dialing
with automated exchanges; satellite earth station - 1 with access to
Intelsat, Eutelsat, Inmarsat, and Intersputnik (2007)
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Radio broadcast stations:
|
|
AM 14, FM 63, shortwave 2
(2008)
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Television
broadcast stations:
|
|
75 (2008)
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Internet country code:
|
|
.pl
|
|
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Internet hosts:
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|
8.906 million (2009)
2
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|
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Internet users:
|
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18.679 million (2008)
9
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Airports:
|
|
125 (2009)
country comparison to the world: 46
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Airports - with paved runways:
|
|
total: 84
over 3,047 m:
4
2,438 to 3,047 m:
30
1,524 to 2,437 m:
39
914 to 1,523 m:
7
under 914 m:
4 (2009)
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Airports - with unpaved runways:
|
|
total: 41
2,438 to 3,047 m:
1
1,524 to 2,437 m:
5
914 to 1,523 m:
15
under 914 m:
20 (2009)
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Heliports:
|
|
7 (2009)
|
|
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Pipelines:
|
|
gas 13,631 km; oil 1,384
km; refined products 777 km (2009)
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Railways:
|
|
total: 22,314
km
2
broad gauge:
633 km 1.524-m gauge
standard gauge:
21,681 km 1.435-m gauge (11,769 km electrified)
(2007)
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Roadways:
|
|
total: 423,997
km
6
paved:
295,356 km (includes 662 km of expressways)
unpaved:
128,641 km (2006)
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Waterways:
|
|
3,997 km (navigable
rivers and canals) (2007)
8
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|
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Merchant marine:
|
|
total: 15
06
by type:
cargo 8, chemical tanker 4, passenger/cargo 1,
roll on/roll off 1, vehicle carrier 1
foreign-owned:
2 (Cyprus 1, Nigeria 1)
registered in other countries:
98 (Antigua and Barbuda 2, Bahamas 17, Cyprus 18,
Liberia 13, Malta 24, Norway 3, Panama 11, Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines 1, Slovakia 2, Vanuatu 7) (2008)
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Ports and terminals:
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Gdansk, Gdynia,
Swinoujscie, Szczecin
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Military branches:
|
|
Polish Armed Forces: Land Forces,
Navy, Air and Air Defense Aviation Forces, Special Forces (2010)
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|
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Military service age and obligation:
|
|
18-28 years of age for
male voluntary or compulsory military service; service obligation
shortened from 12 to 9 months in 2005; conscription is to end in 2012;
only soldiers who have completed their conscript service are allowed to
volunteer for professional service; as of April 2004, women are only
allowed to serve as officers and noncommissioned officers; reserve
obligation to age 50 (2009)
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|
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Manpower available for military service:
|
|
males age 16-49: 9,597,047
females age 16-49:
9,364,939 (2010 est.)
|
|
|
Manpower fit for military service:
|
|
males age 16-49: 7,860,841
females age 16-49:
7,828,221 (2010 est.)
|
|
|
Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually:
|
|
male: 235,248
female:
224,801 (2010 est.)
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Military expenditures:
|
|
1.71% of GDP (2005 est.)
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|
| Transnational Issues
::Poland |
Disputes - international:
|
|
as a member state that forms part
of the EU's external border, Poland has implemented the strict Schengen
border rules to restrict illegal immigration and trade along its eastern
borders with Belarus and Ukraine
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Illicit drugs:
|
|
despite diligent
counternarcotics measures and international information sharing on
cross-border crimes, a major illicit producer of synthetic drugs for the
international market; minor transshipment point for Southwest Asian
heroin and Latin American cocaine to Western Europe
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